Frankenstein By Mary Shelly Essays - Fiction, Literature

Frankenstein By Mary Shelly In the story "Frankenstein," written by the author Mary Shelley, Victor Frankenstein decided that wanted to create a being out of people that were already dead. He believed that he could bring people back from the grave. Playing with nature in such a way would make him play the role of God. With Victor Frankenstein feeling that he had no true friends, the only relief he had of expressing his feeling was through letters to Elizabeth. Elizabeth was not Victors' true sister but he loved her very dearly, making sure to always write her when ever he had the chance. Yet, when Victor left something strange came over him. Already being interested in subjects such as natural philosophy and chemistry, he fall upon the question of how to bring someone back to life. He became very involved in this project and worked on it for days on end. The project had to do with defying the laws of nature. Victor believe wholeheartedly that he could bring the dead back to life. He felt that the dead were not ready to die and they were just resting. Victor became so self absorbed into his project that he seem to forget all that was important to him. He even disengaged himself from all the people he loved in his life. People like his father, Elizabeth, and other loved ones. Victor began to write less and less. Yet, it was not until Elizabeth got a discouraged letter from Victor, did his love ones start to wary about him. Though, the letter was full of words, it gave no relief to Elizabeth, because the words meant nothing to her. However, they meant a lot to Victor, because he felt the project in which he was working on was so important to him, in his own delirious world. He felt that with bring people back to life he would not only better man kind, but also establish a name for himself. With this type of attitude, he did not even take into consideration that he might make the world a worse place. This part in the story shows the irony. The irony being that Victor Frankenstein feels he is doing something good for the world, but we later find out just how bad this creation could be. Though Elizabeth wanted to pull Victor away from his project, he was unwilling to leave until it is complete. After Victor found how to bring his creation to life, he also found out just how evil his invention could be. His creation was strong and evil. With the escape of the monster, Victor Frankenstein had to come to realization of what his creation might do and the consequences that Frankenstein, himself would have to deal with. With the murder of his brother weighing the guilt on his shoulders, Frankenstein know he had to do something. So he went looking for the monster. Upon their meeting each other, the monster confessed that when he found out that William as Victor's brother he killed him. He then proceeded to tell him that he killed his brother due to the fact that he was trying to get back at his creator for bringing him to life and allowing him to be an out cast in society. This killing prove to Victor that the monster did not know right from wrong or how to cope with his anger. This aggression made Frankenstein's creation violent. While talking with the monster, the monster demanded from Frankenstein to create a partner that he could be able to live with away for society. At first, agreeing to the demand, but later realized that if his first creation came out to be a killer so could the second one. With this in mind Frankenstein revoked his agreement and decided against creating another monster. Though, knowing that this decision could be dangerous to him and his loved ones. Yet, he had to think of what was truly best for man kind. Bringing the dead to life or saving the lives of the living. Another peace of irony in this story is, just like Victor Frankenstein who had no friends and was different from the rest of society so was the monster. Also, when Frankenstein decided to play God and bring the dead to life, his creation took on the same role when he decided to take away some ones life. All in all, both Frankenstein and his creation had some of the same behaviors and both were going to

Aristotles Views on Women

Aristotles Views on Women Introduction Before the Greek physicians and philosophers of the Classical Age took up the question of the nature of women, the Greeks had serious attitudes toward women as revealed in their literature (Whaley 2003, p. 1). Generally, women were to be kept down, or some disaster would occur.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Aristotle’s Views on Women specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ancient Greek society was fundamentally patriarchal in nature and women were always under the control of men. Women were never expected to be in charge of their own lives and were viewed essentially as evil creatures. According to Whaley (2003, p. 1), this perception can be traced back to the writings of the eighth century poet Hesiod. In one of his poems, Hesiod described human misfortunes as beginning from a woman’s curiosity. Ordinarily, the ancient Greeks tended to view women as being passive and weak. There were, however, differences in view points and the extent to which they believed such allegations. The question of whether or not women are capable of taking on certain responsibilities in society is related to the nature of the female. As such, Aristotle is of primary importance, for it is his views on the nature of women that have dominated Western civilization. With his ideologies, Aristotle thought he had provided a scientific basis for the traditional Greek belief in female inferiority (Harding Hintikka 2003). He was the first to dominate the western mind with a single theory of the concept of woman and provided a new or original definition of what it meant to be male or female. His views on women superseded those of earlier thinkers and persisted well into the early modern era.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Before Aristotle, there were philosophers who wrote on the subject of wom en and the female contribution to the reproductive process and his debate with his predecessors focused on the role of male and female in the reproductive process. Some scholars, however, held that both sexes were responsible for reproduction, a view that was the basis of their belief in some form of equality between the sexes. Aristotle’s View on Women Aristotle was the most influential non Christian source for ideas in many fields up to the seventeenth century. This had very unfortunate effects for women in general (Wiesner 2000, p. 18). Although he was Plato’s most brilliant student, he disagreed with many of his master’s theories. To Aristotle, women were imperfect men, the result of something wrong with the conception that created them. According to Aristotle, their parents were too young or too old, or too diverse in age, or one of them was not healthy. Nature always aimed at perfection, and Aristotle termed monstrous, anything less than perfect. A woman w as thus a deformity, but one which occurred in the ordinary course of nature. Aristotle’s remarks on women are generally regarded as the all-time low of his philosophy and science (Mayhew 2010, p. 1). The problem is not simply that he is wrong, nor is it simply that there are gaps in his reasoning. The problem, many believe, is that his views about women are the product of an ideological bias and not of honest science.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Aristotle’s Views on Women specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Besides his remarks on women representing gender prejudice, they are also dangerous and the source of many of the standard western arguments for the inferiority of womankind and political subordination of women to men at home and in society. In the same spirit, it is evidently the case that Aristotle’s account of women in particular and of the female gender in general both provide some kind of rationalization or accommodation of widespread Greek social attitudes (Marshall 2004, p. 25). According to Wiesner (2000, p. 10), Aristotle’s conception of women is, in general and in many details, false. Frequently, however, too little care is taken over rigorous scholarship on the part of some of his fiercest critics. Often, there is little concern for what precisely his views are on a particular issue. Nor is there much of concern with presenting support for the claim that his arguments about women are more than rationalization. There is a great deal of confusion over what Aristotle says in his biological writings about women and whether what he says about them is ideological (Green Mews 2011). This may in part be a result of the fact that, until fairly recently, scholars of ancient philosophy have tended to neglect Aristotle’s biological works including the history of animals, parts of animals, and generation of animals. Beginning in the twelfth century, theol ogians and religious writers, generally called scholastics, attempted to bring together the teachings of Aristotle and those of early Christian writers, into one grand philosophical system.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thomas Aquinas, the most brilliant and thorough of the scholastics, synthesized classical and Christian ideas about women, stating that women’s inferiority was not simply the result of Eve’s actions, but was inherent in her original creation (Green Mews 2011). Based on Aristotle’s ideologies, Aquinas argued that even in procreation, the role of women was quite minimal, since the mother simply provided the material substance in the child while the father supplied the active force (Wiesner 2000, p. 18). Women needed male assistance in everything because of their physical and intellectual weakness, though they did have souls and so were responsible for their own salvation (Nussbaum 2001, p. 49). In Aristotle’s view, women are who they are because of their inability to produce semen (Warren 2008, p. 204). He considers men to be separate from women since they are better and more divine in that they are the principle of movement for generated things, while wom en serve as their matter. While still within the mother, a woman takes longer to develop than a man does. However, because women are weaker than men, everything reaches its perfection sooner in women than in men once birth has taken place (Warren 2008, p. 204). We should, therefore, look upon a woman’s state as though it were a deformity. Ethically, Aristotle considers man to be the master with many responsibilities such as being the head of the house. Whatever can be suitably performed by the woman is, however, handed to her by the husband. Politically, a husband rules over his wife as a constitutional requirement. Aristotle also says that the friendship of husband and wife â€Å"may even be a friendship of virtue, if they are good, for there is a virtue appropriate to each, and they can rejoice in this† (Harding Hintikka 2003). In Aristotle’s view, the virtues of women differ in kind and not in freedom from those of men. He thus quotes the popular view that à ¢â‚¬Å"silence brings glory to women† (Krikos Ingold 2004) Culture and Perceptions on Women It is not true that every thinker is guilty of rationalization. In fact, everyone is capable of objectivity. This does not, however, imply that a scientist works in a cultural vacuum, under no influence from his intellectual, historical, and social context (Green Mews 2011). There are numerous ways in which a cultural context limits or tends to limit a scientist. The nature of the debate and the key issues inherited by a scientist will tend to affect how he approaches an issue as will the state of the evidence and the period of scientific development in which a scientist works. Furthermore, the nature of society and social roles such as the status of women can create obstacles for the scientist. In Aristotle’s case, take for example the discussion of women’s role in generation. Because of how the issue was treated by scientists and non scientists, Aristotle discussed gene ration partly in terms of whether the woman contributed seed to generation (Nussbaum 2001, p. 53). Moreover, without a microscope, it was simply the case that there were certain conclusions about the nature of generation that he could not reach. Given the ancient conception of the woman as inferior to the male, there may well have been pressures on Aristotle o view the issue in a certain way, pressures not exerted on a geneticist working in the twenty first century. Cultural context sets limits to what a scientist can do and creates certain obstacles that may be difficult or even impossible to overcome. An important observation, however, is that a scientist is not trapped in this context (Krikos Ingold 2004). The context of his scientific theories is not determined or set in advance by the cultural context. One’s cultural context does not make objectivity impossible, at least not for those who are not ideologically biased. As a matter of fact, a scientist is quite capable of radically reassessing the views of his predecessors and of his culture (Warren 2008, p. 206). A lack of objectivity is not an inevitable consequence of working in a certain cultural context. It is the result of evasion, dishonesty, or other human failures. As noted by Mayhew (2010, p. 5), being influenced by one’s cultural context is not automatically evidence of ideological rationalization. For example, while almost all educated people today accept the view that women can philosophize, most people living around the Mediterranean in the fourth century B.C. were of a contrary opinion. This is, however, associated with the fact that they had few examples of women philosophizing (Green Mews 2011). Certainly, if this enormous lack of evidence for some belief is included in the meaning of social causation, then it provides no evidence of rationalization. As such, an ancient Greek denying the possibility of female philosophers would not necessarily involve any such false consciou sness. A further investigation can lead to the conclusion that a particular thinker who holds an obnoxious belief is excused of the charge of bias because of the cultural context within which he was working (Allen 2006, p. 115). Of course, if a thinker is cleared of such a charge, it does not mean that his ideas were formed or even deformed without any inclusion from the cultural context within which he was working. Although some people might hold that any negative view of women is acceptable, it may be necessary to consider whether a given negative claim in fact supports the interests of men at the expense of the interests of women (Foley 2009, p. 19). For example, one might posit that Aristotle’s claim that women contribute less to generation than men would affect how women are viewed and treated. In the present era, if a philosopher or scientist down played the role of women in generation, we would immediately reject the assumption as baseless and assume some kind of bias with a great deal of justification. It may, however, be wrong to immediately assume bias on the part of an ancient Greek thinker who made such claims considering that an ancient Greek biologist lacked a microscope and a long history of biological research to build on (Landau 2010, p. 22). It may very well be the case that, in ancient Mediterranean cultures around the time of Aristotle, women neither philosophized nor ruled. Conclusion Aristotle’s portrait of women is of tremendous importance in Western thought. It became a guide for attitudes to women in general, and because of his influence as a person, it became entrenched in Western culture. It should be noted, however, that there are other important and interesting accounts of Aristotle’s ideologies that make his views on women to appear very complex. For example, his understanding of women in the political world leads to a vision of hierarchy, but not submission on all levels. Although Aristotle does think that wo men are by nature inferior to men, he also thinks that there are many cases where nature does not fulfill itself, and in these, women may be superior to men (Wiesner 2000, p. 55). Thus, although men are superior to women by nature, not all men are better than all women. Moreover, Aristotle notes that men are rendered superior to women also by convention, but as in his discussion of slaves, he thinks that convention can be problematic. In the modern society, however, arguments presented by Aristotle to advance his ideologies can not be easily accepted. Numerous examples exist to show that women can actually perform better than men in a number of ways. Whether in politics, education, or at work, negative attitudes about women are quickly fading away. Reference List Allen, P 2006, The Concept of Woman: The Early Humanist Reformation, 1250-1500, Part 2, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, Cambridge, UK. Foley, HP 2009, Female Acts in Greek Tragedy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Gre en, K Mews CJ 2011, Virtue Ethics for Women 12501500, Springer Publishing, New York. Harding, SG Hintikka, MB 2003, Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science, Springer Publishing, New York. Krikos, LA Ingold, C 2004, Womens Studies: A Recommended Bibliography, Libraries Unlimited, Westport, CT. Landau, I 2010, Is Philosophy Androcentric?, Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA. Marshall, T 2004, Aristotles Theory of Conduct, Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish, MT. Mayhew, R 2010, The Female in Aristotles Biology: Reason or Rationalization, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Nussbaum, MC 2001, The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy, Part 2, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. Warren, KJ 2008, An Unconventional History of Western Philosophy: Conversations Between Men and Women Philosophers, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, MA. Whaley, LA 2003, Wom ens History as Scientists: A Guide to the Debates, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California. Wiesner, ME 2000, Women and Gender in Early Modern Europa, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Incentive program to reduce waste Research Proposal

Incentive program to reduce waste - Research Proposal Example inventive and dynamic incentive system in the forklift operational management needs to be designed to dramatically cut down accidents and risks to the barest minimum. This is a proposal for incentive program to reduce waste by forklift operators during shipping of goods. First the proposal would identify the kind of forklift operations that need incentive programs during movements. Next, it would recommend the kinds of incentive programs that could be conveniently implemented From a review of the company’s accident statistics, it is observed that the rate of losses due to forklift accidents are very high, sometimes average around 4-5 accidents per month. These accidents may occur due to mishandling of forklifts, improper or inadequate training to forklift operators or even due to negligent or careless supervision. The management needs to take firm and concrete steps not only in order to reduce and even eliminate the risks of heavy losses of materials due to forklift operations but also risk of personal injury to forklift operators or other stores personnel There is always the risk due to mishandling of goods while handling. This could be due to judgement errors of the forklift operator or if his view is blocked due to cartons in front of him, or if the pellets on which the materials are mounted are defective or broken. Lack of proper training, judgemental error or mechanical or electrical fault, or malfunctioning of the forklift could also lead to wastages, accidents and losses, determinate or indeterminate. In the event the forklift overturns while in operation, this could cause serious damages or even loss of life or limbs. Besides, there needs to be some self induced or regulatory measures by which such damages or losses could be sustained. The incentive programme is not a substitute for safety but to inculcate a sense of collective responsibility for denial of accidents or property damages. The damages may not be of the company’s items alone but could

Mass transportation in los angeles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mass transportation in los angeles - Essay Example The express buses do not stop often and normally drive on the freeways where it is possible to cover the shortest distance, which means that it skips various stops and areas. The rapid buses normally travel and pick passengers on local streets, although they do not make as many stops as the local buses and, therefore, can be considered as better when it comes to beating the traffic. However, one is advised to review the schedules prior to travelling since these buses change routes and, during the late hours, their frequency is reduced. Fares for a weekly pass are $20, for a day pass one has to pay $5 and $1.50 for a single ride (Shanks, 2001). Metro buses in Los Angeles also use the orange and silver rapid transit lines to operate metro liners, which are present on the metro rail map due to the fact that, along majority of their routes, they operate transit-ways (Shanks, 2001). The Department of Transportation In Los Angeles also operates white buses on top of the Metro on local lines so as to supplement their bus service Downtown and in other areas with high population densities. In addition, cities that neighbour LA also operate bus systems that extend their routes into LA and charge different fares. These buses overlap with the Metro bus networks. Some of these bus systems also run rapid line routes, which are parallel to local routes but have fewer stops. Some of these include the Big Blue Bus that is operated by Santa Monica City and serves Santa Monica, Venice Beach, Brentwood and other West LA districts, LAX, and downtown LA. The Culver City Bus serves Culver City, LAX, Century City, Mar Vista, Rancho Park, Marina Del Rey, Palms, West LA Transit Centre, UCLA, Venice, Westwood, and Westchester (Bottles, 2011). The Burbank Transit operates around North Hollywood and Burbank, while Torrance Transit operates around Torrance to Long and Redondo Beach, downtown LA, and LAX. The Foothills Transit also operates

Analyse how Public Relations communications theory can help an Essay

Analyse how Public Relations communications theory can help an understanding of the role of new media - Essay Example Toward the end of the century, as business corporations became the dominant institutions of our times, the scope of PR widened and assumed new roles in the commercial realm of product marketing. At the birth of the new millennium, the ascendency of digital technology into the mainstream has once again enhanced and redefined the nature and role of public relations industry. Irrespective of the evolution and change of mediums of communication over the last century, the essence of PR industry has remained more or less the same. In other words, the theoretical framework within which the PR industry operates is applicable across media technologies, both new and traditional. This essay will pertain itself to the analysis of how Public Relations communications theory can help understanding the role of new media. Firstly, new media is a term that is used to refer to a range of communication options that fall along a spectrum. The research team of Diana Owen and Richard Davis have done extensive analytical work on new media. They describe the wide range of new media technologies thus: â€Å"At one end are communications platforms based on old technologies that have taken on new political roles, such as radio and television talk programs, tabloids, and television news magazines. In the middle of the spectrum are mixed or hybrid media that combine elements of traditional media with newer technologies. These include 24-hour cable news programs and the Internet sites of newspapers and magazines. On the far end of the spectrum are new media that have developed as a result of new technology that has been put to novel political uses. Internet applications, such as social networking Web sites like Facebook and MySpace, blogs, video-sharing sites including YouTube, and podcasts fall into this category.† (Owen & Davis, 2008) What we learn from the history of PR theory over the last century is the identification of

Absorption Costing Vs Marginal Costing | Case Study

Absorption Costing Vs Marginal Costing | Case Study As Marabs Manufacturing Limited deals in different products, some standard while others customised, it should accordingly adopt different but suitable techniques for costing these products. Absorption costing and marginal costing are two different techniques of cost accounting which can be used by Marabs Manufacturing. These techniques may be suited under different circumstances. How is Absorption Costing Different from Marginal Costing? Absorption costing is a traditional method of inventory costing that traces all manufacturing costs (the variable and the fixed costs of production) to the product. These costs do not become expenses until the inventory is sold. Absorption costing considers normal manufacturing costs as product costs and includes them for inventory valuation. As sales occur, the cost of inventory is transferred to cost of goods sold. Absorption costing emphasises the functional characteristics of cost. Using this system, the profit reported for a manufacturing business for a period is influenced by the level of production as well as by the level of sales. The rationale for absorption costing is that it causes a product to be measured and reported at its complete cost. Absorption costing is based on the premise that even though it is difficult to trace costs like fixed manufacturing overhead to a particular unit of output it does not mean that they are not a cost of that output. As a result, such cost s are allocated to products. In contrast, marginal costing is a costing technique of presenting cost data wherein variable costs and fixed costs are shown separately for managerial decision-making. Marginal costing system emphasises the behavioural characteristics of cost. The focus of this system of costing is on separating costs into variable elements and fixed elements. Under marginal costing, variable costs are charged to cost units and the fixed costs are treated as period costs and, as such, are simply deducted from contribution in the period incurred to arrive at net profit. Inventory/stock for profit measurement under marginal costing is valued at marginal cost. It is in sharp contrast to the total unit cost under absorption costing method. There are various other points of difference. The key differences between marginal and absorption costing are: Accounting for Fixed Manufacturing Costs Marginal and absorption costing differ in terms of treatment of fixed manufacturing costs. Under marginal costing, fixed manufacturing costs are excluded from inventory costs and are a cost of the period in which they are incurred. On the other hand, under absorption costing, these costs are included in the cost of inventory and become a part of cost of goods sold in the period when sales occur. Presentation of Sales and Cost Data Facilitating Decision-Making Absorption costing does not differentiate between variable and fixed cost in the calculation of profits. But marginal cost statement very clearly indicates this difference in arriving at the net operational results of a firm. The differences in presentation are clearly shown in the costing pro-forma below. ABSORPTION COSTING PRO-FORMA Â £ Â £ Â £ Sales xxx Production cost of Sales Opening Stock xxx Production Costs: Direct Materials Direct Labour Production Cost absorbed xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx Less: Closing stock (xxx) (xxx) Production Overhead absorbed xxx Production Overhead incurred xxx Over absorbed / Under absorbed xxx or (xxx) xxx Administration overheads incurred xxx Selling and distribution costs xxx (xxx) Profit xxx MARGINAL COSTING PRO-FORMA Â £ Â £ Â £ Sales xxx Variable cost of Sales Opening Stock xxx Variable Production Costs: Direct Materials Direct Labour Variable Production Cost xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx Less: Closing stock (xxx) Variable Production Cost of Sales xxx Variable Selling and Distribution xxx Total Variable Cost of Sales (xxx) Contribution xxx Fixed Costs: Fixed Production Cost Fixed administration cost Fixed selling and distribution xxx xxx xxx Total Fixed Costs (xxx) Profit xxx Absorption of Fixed Overheads In absorption costing, fixed overheads can never be completely absorbed. However, this is not so under marginal costing. Under marginal costing, the actual fixed overhead incurred is wholly charged against contribution. Stock Valuation In marginal costing, work in progress and finished stocks are valued at marginal or variable cost, but in absorption costing, they are valued at total production cost. Difference in Profits The net profits under absorption costing method and marginal costing methods differ if there is a difference between opening and closing stock values. When closing stock is more than opening stock, the profit under absorption costing will be higher as comparatively a greater portion of fixed cost is included in closing stock and carried over to next period. When opening and closing stocks are same, there will be no difference in profit, provided the fixed cost element in opening and closing stocks are of the same amount. Thus, absorption costing and marginal costing differ in their approach and treatment of costs. However, each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Arguments in Favour of Using Absorption Costing Absorption costing is simple to administer and easy to understand, and may be appropriate when direct costs are of significance. Besides, absorption costing is required for outside reporting where other methods of costing such as marginal costing are not accepted. It is also widely used for cost control purpose. Thus, there are various arguments in favour of absorption costing are: Absorption costing does not need to separate costs into fixed and variable costs. This is especially useful in situations where separation of costs into fixed and variable is difficult and gives misleading results. Under marginal costing, stocks and work in progress are understated. The exclusion of fixed costs from inventories affect profit and true and fair view of financial affairs of an organisation may not be clearly transparent. Absorption cost data is more realistic than marginal cost data in case of highly fluctuating levels of production, e.g., in case of seasonal factories. Besides, volume variance in standard costing also discloses the effect of fluctuating output on fixed overhead. Application of fixed overhead depends on estimates and not on the actuals and as such there may be under or over absorption of the same. Absorption costing takes care of this while marginal costing may not be able to do so. Absorption costing controls cost by means of budgetary control. This is an acceptable process to many. In order to know the net profit, one needs to take into account fixed overheads also. A system like marginal costing which ignores fixed costs is less effective since a major portion of fixed cost is not taken into account. Thus, absorption costing proves to be better. Arguments in Favour of Using Marginal Costing Despite its various advantages, absorption costing may not always prove to be the best approach to costing or pricing a product. It may not help management take important decisions about a product. Marginal costing may prove to be a better system of costing. For the decision-making purpose of management, better information about expected profit is obtained from the use of variable costs and contribution approach in the accounting system. The arguments that favour marginal costing are: It is simple to understand and avoids having varying charges per unit as it does not charge fixed overhead to cost of production. It prevents the illogical carry forward in stock valuation of some proportion of current year’s fixed overhead. It facilitates cost control as it avoids arbitrary allocation of fixed overhead. Marginal costing uses cost control methods such as flexible budgets. It facilitates cost-volume-profit (CVP) or breakeven analysis and profitability analysis and thus helps in short-term profit planning. It also helps an organization compare profitability and performance between two or more products and divisions and help the management in decision making. Under marginal costing system, large balances are not carried under overhead control accounts and thus there is no difficulty of ascertaining an accurate overhead recovery rate. As marginal costing is much closer to cash flow managers usually find it easier to understand marginal costing reports. Using Both Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing Like any other organization, a manager at Marabs Manufacturing Limited will need to take decisions when he encounters problems and alternative courses of action are available. In deciding which option to choose he will need all the relevant information. In most cases cost information proves to be relevant to any decision making. However, no single costing approach can provide appropriate information for taking decisions in all circumstances. In certain cases absorption costing will provide more complete information while in other cases marginal costing information will be more relevant. The theoretical basis for absorption costing is that decisions should be based on the matching principle for all manufacturing costs. Marabs Manufacturing incurs fixed manufacturing cost with the expectation that the resources represented by these costs will be used in the production of inventory. Hence, these costs should be matched against the revenue generated from the sale of that inventory. In contrast, the theoretical reasoning for marginal costing is that fixed manufacturing overhead will be incurred in the short-run irrespective of the volume of production or level of inventory. A significant portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs is unavoidable in the short run even when the facilities are idle. Marabs Manufacturing Limited is in a multi-product business. Some products are standard products while others are based on specific orders or are customized according to specifications provided by customers. Wherever the company is costing for standard products it may use absorption costing. It is also given in the scenario that the standard products tend to be seasonal and highly fluctuating. Absorption cost data is more realistic than marginal cost data in case of highly fluctuating levels of production. Absorption costing will also be useful while making certain decisions, for example the price to be charged for external services. However, all decisions related to specific orders and or products adapted to meet the requirements of individual customers should be based on marginal costs. Thus, Marabs Manufacturing Limited should not restrict itself to just absorption costing or just marginal costing and use cost data based on both approaches. The chosen approach should depend on the nature of decision required. As a guideline, if the required decision relates to cost control, cost data based on absorption costing will be more appropriate. However, cost data based on marginal costing will be more appropriate for short-term managerial decision-making and control. Decision analysis should ideally include costs that vary with a decision. Though marginal costing identifies both fixed and variable costs its decisions are based on only the variable component of costs of an activity. Fixed costs are not relevant in case of many decisions that involve relatively small variations from existing practice and/or are for relatively limited periods of time. This is because fixed costs are difficult to alter in the short term. Variable cost corresponds closely with the expenditure n ecessary to produce and sell products and services and can therefore be used more readily in incremental analysis than absorption costing data. Marginal costing is also appropriate for decision making when an activity centre has short-term spare capacity. Marginal costing will also help the company in taking a decision on the minimum price that could be charged for a product. This can be particularly useful for pricing additional sales at special reduced rates when sales have already been made at the normal selling price. As fixed costs have already been paid of all that is required to cover the variable costs of any additional sales Finally, marginal costing can help Marabs Manufacturing take decisions related to: Budget planning and determining the volume of sales required to make a profit Pricing and sales volume decisions. Sales mix decisions, to determine in what proportions each product should be sold. Decisions that will affect the cost structure and production capacity of the company. Whether or not to close down a factory, department, product line or other activity, either because it is making losses or because it is too expensive to run. To sum it up, both absorption as well as marginal costing techniques are appropriate for the company and one cannot be treated as better than the other. The choice of a technique should be dependent on the costing objective. References: Charles T. Horngren, George Foster, Srikant M. Datar, Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis, Prentice Hall John K. Harris, Cost Accounting Student Guide, 12th Edition, Prentice Hall Michael W. Maher, William N. Lanen, Madhav V. Rajan, Fundamentals of Cost Accounting, McGraw-Hill/Irwin Ronald W. Hilton, Frank H. Selto, Michael W. Maher, Frank Selto, Cost Management: Strategies for Business Decisions, McGraw-Hill College Absorption Costing / Full Costing accessed from: http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_absorption_costing.html

Tobacco Stuff :: essays research papers fc

The Tobacco Issue: The Tobacco Issue: Where the Responsibility Lies Political-Legal Issues: The legal and political issues surrounding the tobacco industry include whether or not tobacco companies should be held liable for tobacco-related deaths of smokers and those related to second-hand smoke, as well as whether or not elected officials should be accepting money from the tobacco industry in order to win elections. When deciding where the responsibility lies in the case of tobacco, the facts can be turned to favor either side on the issue. However, the tobacco industry has followed the government’s guidelines, since guidelines have been established, while the government seems to want to place blame for peoples’ habits on the manufacturers of products that people choose to use. Tobacco Litigation: The first issue to examine is the issue surrounding the use of the judicial system in finding responsibility for the epidemic surrounding the tobacco industry. The tobacco industry is the defendant in the majority of cases brought before the judiciary and, historically, the majority of the cases have been decided in favor of the industry. In a landmark case in 1988, the tobacco industry won a huge victory against Rose Cipollone. Ms. Cipollone died a horribly painful death from cancer. The defendant in the case was Philip Morris. Philip Morris’ council argued that it was the woman’s choice to smoke. This woman had even testified that she had gone to church every Sunday to pray that she would not get lung cancer. She knew the risks involved with smoking and chose to continue smoking. Philip Morris won the case. (Byrne, 189-190). For years the tobacco industry won case after case involving cancer victims that had smoked. Even today, much of the litigati on by smokers has been decided in favor of the industry. In July of 1999 the Louisiana District Court, 19th District decided the case of Robert Gilboy et al. V. The American Tobacco Co., et al. in favor of the defense. The jury was not convinced that 45 years of smoking had caused Mr. Gilboy’s lung cancer. In the case of the Estate of Burl Butler, et al. V. Philip Morris, Inc., et al., the Jones County, Mississippi Circuit Court, 2nd District jury found the tobacco industry defendants not liable for the alleged second-hand smoke related wrongful death of Mr. Butler. This case was decided in June of 1999. An important win for the defense was gained in Kansas City, Missouri in May of 1999.